© 2003 by European Society of Cardiology
Copyright © 2003, The European Society of Cardiology
American Society of Echocardiography: recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography 
A report from the American Society of Echocardiography's Nomenclature and Standards Committee and The Task Force on Valvular Regurgitation, developed in conjunction with the American College of Cardiology Echocardiography Committee, The Cardiac Imaging Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, The American Heart Association, and the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Echocardiography, represented by:
American Society of Echocardiography, 1500 Sunday Drive, Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607, USA
Received 17 June 2003; accepted after revision 24 July 2003.
Reprinted from the Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, July 2003, Vol. 16, No. 7, pp. 777–802.
These recommendations are endorsed by the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the American Heart Association (AHA), and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Representative from the ACC Echocardiography Committee: Elyse Foster, MD; representative from the Cardiac Imaging Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, AHA: Miguel A. Quinones, MD; representative from the ESC Working Group on Echocardiography: Petros Nihoyannopoulos, MD. 
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Introduction |
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 TopNotes Introduction Two-dimensional and Doppler...Mitral regurgitationAortic regurgitationTricuspid regurgitationPulmonary regurgitationConclusionsReferences |
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Valvular regurgitation has long been recognized as an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Although the physical examination can alert the clinician to the presence of significant regurgitation, diagnostic methods are often needed to assess the severity of valvular regurgitation and remodeling of the cardiac chambers in response to the volume overload state. Echocardiography with Doppler has recently emerged as the method of choice for the noninvasive detection and evaluation of the severity and etiology of valvular regurgitation. This article offers a critical review of echocardiographic and Doppler techniques used in the evaluation of valvular regurgitation in the adult patient, and provides recommendations for the assessment of severity of valvular regurgitation based on the scientific literature and a consensus of a panel of experts. Issues of medical management and timing of surgical intervention will not be addressed in this article, as these have been recently published[1].
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Two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography in valvular regurgitation: general considerations |
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TopNotesIntroductionTwo-dimensional and Doppler...Mitral regurgitationAortic regurgitationTricuspid regurgitationPulmonary regurgitationConclusionsReferences |
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Valvular regurgitation or incompetence results from various etiologies including valvular degeneration, calcification, fibrosis or infection, alteration of the valvular support apparatus or dilatation of the valve annulus. These conditions cause poor apposition of the valvular leaflets or cusps, and may lead to prolapse, flail, restricted leaflet motion or valvular perforation. With the advent of Doppler techniques that are sensitive to detection of regurgitation, trivial and physiologic valvular regurgitation, even in a structurally normal valve, is now well recognized and is noted to occur frequently in right-sided valves. The following sections describe general considerations of the role of echocardiographic and Doppler techniques in the evaluation of regurgitant lesions.
Role of Two-dimensional echocardiography
Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography allows an evaluation of the valvular structure as well as the impact of the volume overload on the cardiac chambers. Calcifications, tethering, flail motion or vegetations can be readily assessed, which can give indirect clues as to the severity of regurgitation. While prolapse, vegetations or calcifications are not necessarily associated with significant regurgitation, a flail leaflet almost always is. In the cases of non-diagnostic transthoracic studies, transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) improves the visualization of the valvular structure and delineates the mechanism and severity of regurgitation.
The duration (acute or chronic) and severity of valvular regurgitation are among the most important determinants of the adaptive changes that occur in the cardiac chambers in response to the regurgitant volume. Thus, a chronic significant regurgitation is usually accompanied by an increase in size and hypertrophy of the involved cardiac chambers whereas significant regurgitation of acute onset from a condition such as endocarditis may not result acutely in this remodeling. While cardiac chamber remodeling is not specific for the degree of regurgitation (i.e. occurs in coronary artery disease, congestive cardiomyopathy etc.), its absence in the face of chronic regurgitation should imply a milder degree of valvular insufficiency.
Once a diagnosis of significant regurgitation is established, serial 2D echocardiography is currently the method of choice for assessing the progression of the mechanical impact of regurgitation on cardiac chamber structure and function. Recommendations for determination of ventricular volumes and ejection fraction have been previously published[2]. These, along with clinical evaluation are needed for adequate timing of surgical intervention.
Doppler methods for evaluation of valvular regurgitation
Doppler echocardiography is the most common technique used for the detection and evaluation of severity of valvular regurgitation. Several indices have been developed to assess the severity of regurgitation using color Doppler, pulsed wave (PW) and continuous wave (CW) Doppler. Details of the Doppler techniques and the methods involved in obtaining these parameters are described in a recently published article from the American Society of Echocardiography on quantification of Doppler Echocardiography[3]. The following sections summarize the salient features of these techniques for the purposes of evaluation and quantitation of valvular regurgitation.
Color Doppler
Color flow Doppler is widely used for the detection of regurgitant valve lesions. This technique provides visualization of the origin of the regurgitation jet and its width (vena contracta), the spatial orientation of the regurgitant jet area in the receiving chamber and, in cases of significant regurgitation, flow convergence into the regurgitant orifice (Fig. 1). Experience has shown that attention to these three components of the regurgitation lesion by color Doppler — as opposed to the traditional regurgitant jet area alone — significantly improves the overall accuracy of estimation and quantitation of the severity of regurgitation with color Doppler techniques. The size of the regurgitation jet by color Doppler and its temporal resolution, however, are significantly affected by transducer frequency and instrument settings such as gain, output power, Nyquist limit, size and depth of the image sector[4]. Thus, full knowledge by the sonographer and interpreting echocardiographer of these issues is necessary for optimal image acquisition and accuracy of interpretation.
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Jet area
Visualization of the regurgitant jet area in the receiving chamber can provide a rapid screening of the presence and direction of the regurgitant jet and a semi-quantitative assessment of its severity. In general, a larger area may translate into a more significant regurgitation. However, the sole reliance on this parameter can be quite misleading. Numerous technical, physiologic and anatomic factors affect the size of the regurgitant area and therefore alter its accuracy as an index of regurgitation severity[4]. Jet size is affected by instrument factors, especially pulse repetition frequency (PRF) and color gain. Standard technique is to use a Nyquist limit (aliasing velocity) of 50–60 cm/s, and a color gain that just eliminates random color speckle from non-moving regions. Jet area is inversely proportional to PRF, and substantial error can be introduced with the use of higher or lower settings than the nominal settings to which echocardiographers have become accustomed. Regarding hemodynamic factors, eccentric, wall-impinging jets appear significantly smaller than centrally directed jets of similar hemodynamic severity, mainly because they flatten out on the wall of the receiving chamber. Their presence, however, should also alert to the possibility of structural abnormalities of the valve (e.g. prolapse, flail, or perforation), frequently in the leaflet or cusp opposite to the direction of the jet. Lastly, color flow area is also influenced by flow momentum — the product of flow rate and velocity. Thus a jet may appear larger by increasing the driving pressure across the valve; hence the importance of measuring blood pressure for left heart lesions at the time of the echocardiographic examination, particularly in the intraoperative setting.
Vena contracta
The vena contracta is the narrowest portion of a jet that occurs at or just downstream from the orifice (Fig. 1). It is characterized by high velocity, laminar flow and is slightly smaller than the anatomic regurgitant orifice due to boundary effects. Thus, the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta represents a measure of the effective regurgitant orifice area (EROA), which is the narrowest area of actual flow. The size of the vena contracta is independent of flow rate and driving pressure for a fixed orifice[5]. However, if the regurgitant orifice is dynamic, the vena contracta may change with hemodynamics or during the cardiac cycle[6]. Comprised of high velocities, the vena contracta is considerably less sensitive to technical factors such as PRF compared to the jet in the receiving chamber. To specifically image the vena contracta, it is often necessary to angulate the transducer out of the normal echocardiographic imaging planes such that the area of proximal flow acceleration, the vena contracta, and the downstream expansion of the jet can be distinguished. It is preferable to use a zoom mode to optimize visualization of the vena contracta and facilitate its measurement. The color flow sector should also be as narrow as possible, with the least depth, to maximize lateral and temporal resolution. Because of the small values of the width of the vena contracta (usually <1 cm), small errors in its measurement may lead to a large percent error and misclassification of the severity of regurgitation, hence the importance of accurate acquisition of the primary data and measurement.
Proximal isovelocity surface area (PISA) or flow convergence
The PISA method is derived from the hydrodynamic principle stating that, as blood approaches a regurgitant orifice, its velocity increases forming concentric, roughly hemispheric shells of increasing velocity and decreasing surface area[7]. Color flow mapping offers the ability to image one of these hemispheres that corresponds to the Nyquist limit of the instrument. If a Nyquist limit can be chosen at which the flow convergence has a hemispheric shape, flow rate (ml/s) through the regurgitant orifice is calculated as the product of the surface area of the hemisphere (2
r2) and the aliasing velocity (Va) as 2r2 * Va (Fig. 2). Assuming that the maximal PISA radius occurs at the time of peak regurgitant flow and peak regurgitant velocity, the maximal EROA is derived as:
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Measurement of PISA by color flow mapping requires adjustment of the aliasing velocity such that a well-defined hemisphere is shown. This is generally done by shifting the baseline toward the direction of flow, or by lowering the Nyquist limit, or both (the latter reduces the wall filter, whereas the former does not)[8]. If the base of the hemisphere is not a flat surface (180°), then correction for wall constraint should be performed, multiplying by the ratio of the angle formed by the walls adjacent to the regurgitant orifice and 180°. This has been shown to improve the reliability of the measurement[9].
The limitations of PISA have been reviewed in detail[10]. It is more accurate for central jets than for eccentric jets, and for regurgitation with a circular orifice. If the image resolution allows the flow convergence to be seen well, and a Nyquist limit can be chosen at which the flow convergence has a hemispheric shape, it is easy to identify the aliasing line of the hemisphere. However, it can be difficult to judge the precise location of the orifice and the flow convergence shape. Any error introduced is then squared, which can markedly affect the resulting flow rate and EROA. Recent modifications of the described PISA method use the distance between two aliasing contours to circumvent the errors from imprecise location of the orifice in the standard PISA formula, and automate localizing the most hemispheric shape[11]. Although promising, further experience is needed with these methods.
All the color Doppler parameters discussed above provide instantaneous measures of regurgitation severity. Criteria for these maximum instantaneous measurements corresponding to the severity of each lesion assume a pan-systolic (or pan-diastolic) duration. However, in some circumstances, such as mitral valve prolapse, the duration of regurgitation may be brief[12] and can be suspected from real-time, 2D color Doppler. A time-based graphic, such as CW Doppler or color M mode, can better ascertain this finding. Although graphing the actual duration of such flow patterns has not been systematically studied, a correction of color flow indices of regurgitation for the duration of regurgitation is advised.
Pulsed Doppler Quantitative Flow Methods
PW Doppler recordings of flow velocity can be combined with 2D measurements to derive flow rates and stroke volume[13]. The technical details involved in making these measurements and their sources of error are described in the article on Quantitation of Doppler Echocardiography[3]. This method is simple in theory but accurate results require individual training (e.g. practice in normal patients where the stroke volumes at different sites are equal). Briefly, stroke volume (SV) at any valve annulus — the least variable anatomic area of a valve apparatus — is derived as the product of cross-sectional area (CSA) and the velocity time integral (VTI) of flow at the annulus. Assumption of a circular geometry has worked well clinically for most valves with the exception of the tricuspid annulus. Thus,
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In left sided regurgitant lesions, SVRegValv or total stroke volume of the ventricle can also be measured using left ventricular volume calculations by 2D echocardiography as end-diastolic volume minus end-systolic volume. Methods for calculation of left ventricular volumes have been previously detailed[2]. Measurement of left ventricular volumes by echocardiography has the potential pitfall of underestimating true left ventricular volume and therefore underestimating regurgitation severity. Recently, the use of intravenous contrast agents that cross the pulmonary circulation has shown promise in facilitating the tracing of the ventricular endocardium and improving the accuracy and reproducibility of volume measurements[16,17]. Assessment of ventricular volumes based on M-mode echocardiography has important limitations and is not recommended.
Other Pulsed and Continuous Wave Doppler Methods
There are several pulsed and CW Doppler methods that give indirect clues to the significance of valvular regurgitation. In general, the density of the spectral display of a regurgitant jet is proportional to the number of red cells exhibiting regurgitation and is a qualitative index of severity. Other parameters result from the hemodynamic consequences of the severity of regurgitation and are more valve specific (atrio-ventricular valve vs aortic or pulmonic valve). For atrio-ventricular valves, these parameters include the magnitude of the early inflow velocity (E), the pulmonary or hepatic venous inflow pattern, and the contour or shape of the regurgitant jet by CW Doppler. For aortic and pulmonic valve insufficiency, the parameter used is the rate of deceleration of the regurgitant jet velocity (pressure half-time), which reflects the rapidity of equilibration of diastolic arterial and ventricular pressures. Another index of severity of aortic insufficiency is the magnitude of diastolic flow reversal in the aorta. Although helpful in the overall evaluation of regurgitation, these parameters are in general sensitive but less specific for the severity of regurgitation, as they are influenced by other hemodynamic and clinical conditions. These methods will be discussed in detail for each valve (see below).
Doppler Methods in Acute vs Chronic Regurgitation
Color Doppler measures are particularly deceptive in acute regurgitation, leading to the clinical paradox of apparently small jet size in a critically ill patient, especially from the transthoracic echocardiogram[18,19]. This is related in part to technical factors, particularly insufficient color Doppler temporal resolution in the tachycardic patient; practically, frame rate should therefore be maximized[20]. TEE has been felt to provide a more sensitive view, and the decreased depth also maximizes frame rate particularly for mitral regurgitation[18,19]. More fundamentally, however, the short duration of regurgitation and small receiving chambers limit the maximal development of jet area, and the rapid equalization of pressures diminishes orifice velocity, jet momentum, and therefore jet area[21,22]. The proximal jet or vena contracta remains reliable in this setting, as does pulsed Doppler quantitation. Doppler hemodynamic signs of elevated receiving chamber pressures, such as short aortic insufficiency pressure half-time, early truncation of mitral regurgitant velocities, and pulmonary venous flow reversal, are particularly informative in this setting, and may provide the only clues to significant regurgitation. In this clinical scenario of suspected acute valvular regurgitation, TEE is encouraged for a more definite diagnosis and improved patient management[19,23].
Grading the Severity of Valvular Regurgitation
Characterization of the severity of regurgitant lesions is among the most difficult problems in valvular heart disease. Such a determination is important since mild regurgitation does not lead to remodeling of cardiac chambers and has a benign clinical course, whereas severe regurgitation is associated with significant remodeling, morbidity and mortality[1]. Contributing to the difficulty of assessment of regurgitation is the lack of a true gold standard, and the dependence of regurgitation severity on the hemodynamic conditions at the time of evaluation. Although angiography has been used historically to define the degree of regurgitation based on opacification of the receiving chamber, it is also dependent on several technical factors and hemodynamics[24–27]. For example, an increase in blood pressure will increase all parameters of aortic or mitral regurgitation, be it assessed as regurgitant fraction or angiographic grade. Furthermore, the angiographic severity grades, which have ranged between 3 and 5, have only modest correlations with quantitative indices of regurgitation[14,24–28].
Doppler methods for valvular regurgitation have been validated in vitro and in animal models against independent flow parameters, and clinically, mostly in adults, against the angiographic standard. The majority of these validation studies have involved left sided cardiac valves. As already discussed, there are several qualitative and quantitative echocardiographic parameters that can provide assessment of valvular regurgitation. The availability of these different parameters provides an internal verification and corroboration of the severity of the lesion, particularly when technical or physiologic conditions preclude the use of one or the other of these indices. This multi-faceted approach is essential. If there are signs suggesting that the regurgitation is significant and the quality of the data lends itself to quantitation, it is desirable for echocardiographers with experience in quantitative methods to determine quantitatively the degree of regurgitation, particularly for left sided lesions. Ultimately, the interpreter must integrate the information and disregard ‘outlying’ data (because of poor quality or a physiologic condition that alters accuracy of a certain parameter), making a best estimate of regurgitation severity.
The consensus of the Task Force is to classify grading of severity of regurgitation into mild, moderate, and severe. In cases of overlap or intermediate severity, the terms ‘mild-to-moderate’ or ‘moderate-to-severe’ can be used. ‘Trace’ regurgitation is also used in the event that regurgitation is barely detected. Usually this can be physiologic, particularly in right heart valves and mitral valve, and may not produce an audible murmur.
Finally, the echocardiographic and Doppler examination in a patient with valvular regurgitation is best interpreted within the clinical context at the time of the examination. It has been clearly demonstrated that the severity of regurgitation may be influenced by hemodynamic conditions. Therefore, it is essential to record the patient's blood pressure at the time of the study and note the patient's medications whenever possible. When following a patient with serial examinations, these factors need to be considered in comparing the severity of regurgitation and its hemodynamic consequences.
The following sections detail the use of 2D and Doppler echocardiographic methods for the evaluation of each valvular lesion and provide suggested criteria and approach for the assessment of the severity of regurgitation.
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Mitral regurgitation |
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TopNotesIntroductionTwo-dimensional and Doppler...Mitral regurgitationAortic regurgitationTricuspid regurgitationPulmonary regurgitationConclusionsReferences |
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Role of Two-Dimensional Echocardiography
Evaluation of the anatomy of the mitral valve apparatus by 2D echocardiography is critically important in the assessment of severity of mitral regurgitation (MR). The mitral apparatus includes the leaflets, chordae tendineae, annulus, and the papillary muscles with their supporting left ventricular (LV) walls. Careful evaluation of these structures should be able to define the mechanism of MR and yield clues to its severity. For example, a prominent flail leaflet is usually associated with severe MR. On the other hand, severe MR rarely occurs in the setting of an anatomically normal mitral valve and support apparatus. Defining the mechanism of MR may determine whether valve repair is feasible instead of valve replacement[29,30]. In patients with MR in the setting of LV dilatation and/or systolic dysfunction, it is important to determine whether MR is functional (i.e. due to LV dilatation) or primary (i.e. due to an abnormality of the valve apparatus). In functional MR, the leaflets are usually tethered by outward displacement of the LV walls and papillary muscles, with or without annular dilation[31]. Underlying wall motion abnormalities in patients with coronary artery disease may also lead to functional MR. Finally, evaluation of left atrial (LA) size and LV size and function provides clues to the severity of MR, its acuteness or chronicity, and is important in determining the necessity and timing of surgery[1,32]. Normal 2D-derived values for left ventricular size and function have been previously reported[2]. Briefly, the end-diastolic minor axis dimension of the LV obtained from the parasternal window by 2D is normally
2.8 cm/m2 while the normal end-diastolic LV volume is <82 ml/m2 (reference [2]). For the left atrium, a normal antero-posterior diameter is 2 cm/m2 (reference [33]). Recent studies, however, have shown that determination of LA volumes with 2D echocardiography from the apical views is generally more accurate in assessing LA size than the traditional antero-posterior dimension[34]. A normal maximal LA volume is 36 ml/m2 (reference [35]).
Doppler Methods
Color Flow Doppler
Color Doppler flow mapping is widely used to screen for the presence of mitral regurgitation. Importantly, small color flow jets are seen in roughly 40% of healthy normal volunteers and therefore are considered a normal variant[36]. The incidence of mild regurgitation tends to increase with age. The terms trace MR or MR closing volume have been applied to these jets. There are three methods of quantifying MR severity by color flow Doppler mapping: regurgitant jet area, vena contracta, and flow convergence (PISA). Although jet area was the first method used for assessing MR severity, its sole use is less accurate than the latter two methods.
Regurgitant jet area
As a general rule, large jets that extend deep into the LA represent more MR than small thin jets that appear just beyond the mitral leaflets. However, the correlation between jet area and MR severity is poor due to a variety of technical and hemodynamic limitations as noted earlier[4]. Patients with acute severe MR, in whom blood pressure is low and LA pressure is elevated, may have a small eccentric color flow jet area, whereas hypertensive patients with mild MR may have a large jet area. Furthermore, the same regurgitant flow will produce larger or smaller jets depending on the size of the atrium, which has led to indexing for atrial area[37]. Finally, color flow jets that are directed centrally into the LA generally appear larger because they entrain red blood cells on all sides of the jet. In contrast, eccentric jets that hug the LA wall cannot entrain blood on all sides and tend to appear smaller than central jets of similar or lesser severity (Fig. 3)[38–40]. Because of these considerations, determination of the severity of MR by ‘eyeballing’ or planimetry of the MR color flow jet area only, is not recommended. Nevertheless, small, non-eccentric jets with an area <4.0 cm2 or <20% of LA area are usually trace or mild MR (Table 1). Conversely, large jets that penetrate into the pulmonary veins are more likely to be hemodynamically significant. However, the detection of eccentric, wall-impinging jets should alert the observer to avoid the use of jet area as an index of severity and use other, more appropriate methods described below.
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Vena contracta
The vena contracta should be imaged in high-resolution, zoom views for the largest obtainable proximal jet size for measurements. The examiner must search in multiple planes perpendicular to the commissural line (such as the parasternal long-axis view), whenever possible (Fig. 1). The width of the neck or narrowest portion of the jet is then measured. The regurgitant orifice in MR may not be circular, and is often elongated along the mitral coaptation line. The two-chamber view, which is oriented parallel to the line of leaflet coaptation, generally shows a wide vena contracta even in mild MR, and should not be used to measure the vena contracta. Although the size of the vena contracta is independent of flow rate and driving pressure for a fixed orifice[5], the regurgitant orifice in MR is often dynamic and therefore the vena contracta may change with hemodynamics or during systole[6].
Several studies have shown that the width of the vena contracta is accurate in assessing the severity of MR, either by transthoracic echocardiography or TEE[41–45]. The width of the vena contracta in long-axis views and its cross-sectional area in short-axis views can be standardized from the parasternal views[44]. A vena contracta <0.3 cm usually denotes mild MR whereas the cut-off for severe MR has ranged between 0.6 cm and 0.8 cm[43–45]. Although intermediate values tend to correlate well with moderate MR, there is enough overlap that another method should be used for confirmation. A particular strength of the vena contracta method is that it works equally well for central and eccentric jets. In fact, in eccentric jets of severe MR, the width of the vena contracta along with flow convergence alerts the echocardiographer to the severity of regurgitation by color Doppler (Fig. 3). In patients with multiple MR jets, the respective widths of the vena contracta are not additive, but their cross-sectional areas can be[44]. In the future, three-dimensional imaging of the vena contracta should improve the accuracy of measuring EROA by this technique.
Flow convergence or PISA
Most of the experience with the PISA method for quantitation of regurgitation is with MR. Qualitatively, the presence of PISA on a routine examination (at Nyquist limit of 50–60 cm/s) should alert to the presence of significant MR. Several clinical studies have validated PISA measurements of regurgitant flow rate and EROA[12,46,47]. As mentioned earlier, there are many technical considerations related to optimal acquisition of flow convergence images and to quantitation of mitral regurgitant orifice area by PISA. This methodology is more accurate for central regurgitant jets than eccentric jets, and for a circular orifice than a non-circular orifice. Flow convergence should be optimized from the apical view, usually the four-chamber view, using a zoom mode. Combining data from two views through the major and minor axes of a non-circular orifice (apical two- and four-chamber views) provides greater accuracy, but adds more complexity[8,44,48]. The size of the PISA has meaning only in terms of the aliasing velocity that defines the color surface. Results vary widely for calculations at different aliasing velocities, and care must be taken to use the velocity at which the hemispheric formula applies best[49,50]. Furthermore, for determination of EROA, it is essential that the CW Doppler signal be well aligned with the regurgitant jet. Poor alignment with an eccentric jet will lead to an underestimation of velocity and an overestimation of the EROA. Generally, an EROA 
0.4 cm2 is consistent with severe MR, 0.20–0.39 cm2 with moderate, and <0.20 cm2 with mild MR.
Continuous Wave Doppler
In most patients, maximum MR velocity is 4–6 m/s due to the high systolic pressure gradient between the LV and LA. The velocity itself does not provide useful information about the severity of MR. However, the contour of the velocity profile and its density are useful. A truncated, triangular jet contour with early peaking of the maximal velocity indicates elevated LA pressure or a prominent regurgitant pressure wave in the LA (Fig. 4).
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The density of the CW Doppler signal is a qualitative index of MR severity. A dense signal that approaches the density of antegrade flow suggests significant MR, whereas a faint signal, with or without an incomplete envelope represents mild or trace MR, presuming the recording is made through the vena contracta (Fig. 4). In eccentric significant MR, it may be difficult to record the full envelope of the jet because of its eccentricity, while the signal intensity shows dense features. Recently, the returning power of the regurgitant velocity signal, which is proportional to the area of the vena contracta, has been used to obtain instantaneous regurgitant orifice area and flow rate[51]. This method offers considerable promise.
Using CW Doppler, the tricuspid regurgitation jet should be interrogated in order to estimate pulmonary artery systolic pressure. The presence of pulmonary hypertension provides another indirect clue as to MR severity and compensation to the volume overload.
Pulsed Doppler
Pulsed Doppler tracings at the mitral leaflet tips are commonly used to evaluate LV diastolic function. Patients with severe MR often demonstrate a mitral inflow pattern with a dominant early filling (increased E velocity) due to increased diastolic flow across the mitral valve, with or without an increase in LA pressure[52]. In severe mitral regurgitation without stenosis, the mitral E velocity is higher than the velocity during atrial contraction (A velocity), and usually greater than 1.2 m/s. For these reasons, a mitral inflow pattern with an A-wave dominance virtually excludes severe MR. Because of the effect of relaxation on mitral inflow indices, these observations are more applicable in individuals older than 50 years of age or in conditions of impaired myocardial relaxation.
In contrast to ventricular filling dynamics, calculation of flow and stroke volume through the mitral valve with pulsed Doppler is performed at the mitral annulus level. Several studies have shown the validity and clinical utility of quantitative Doppler measurements of MR severity[14,15,53–55]. The values for regurgitant volumes, regurgitant fraction and EROA by quantitative Doppler for various degrees of MR are shown in Table 1. It should be remembered, however, that in individual patients, these values might vary. For example, a patient with severe MR and a small LV may have a low regurgitant volume but a high regurgitant fraction and EROA. There are no data regarding indexing these measurements to body surface area. Quantitative Doppler measurements may be more applicable to patients with a single regurgitant valve. For example, in the presence of combined MR and significant aortic regurgitation, the calculated regurgitant volume will be erroneous if the LV outflow site is used for comparison. In this case, systemic flow could be calculated at the pulmonic annulus. Lastly, the quantitative PW Doppler method offers an advantage in the case of eccentric or multiple regurgitant MR jets, where PISA is not as accurate and vena contracta is not applicable in the latter situation.
Pulmonary Vein Flow
Pulsed Doppler evaluation of pulmonary venous flow is a useful adjunct to evaluating the hemodynamic consequences of MR. Normal pulmonary venous flow is characterized by a velocity during ventricular systole that is higher than during ventricular diastole. With increasing severity of MR, there is a diminution of the systolic velocity. In many patients with severe MR, the flow in the pulmonary veins becomes reversed in systole (Fig. 4). Since the mitral regurgitant jet may selectively enter one or the other of the pulmonary veins, sampling through all pulmonary veins is recommended, especially during TEE. One limitation of pulmonary venous pattern in the assessment of severity of MR is that elevation in LA pressure of any etiology, and atrial fibrillation also result in a blunted systolic forward flow[56]. As a result, the use of pulmonary venous flow pattern should be used adjunctively with other parameters. Nevertheless, the finding of systolic flow reversal in more than one pulmonary vein is specific but not sensitive for severe mitral regurgitation.
Role of TEE in Assessing Mitral Regurgitation Severity
TEE is indicated to evaluate MR severity in patients in whom transthoracic echocardiography is inconclusive or technically difficult. In addition, TEE is particularly well suited to identify the underlying mechanism of MR and for planning mitral valve surgery. All of the above methods of quantifying MR can also be used during TEE. In particular, the higher resolution of TEE, multiplane capabilities, and proximity to the mitral valve make vena contracta imaging and PISA easier and probably more accurate. On the other hand, since jet size is affected by transducer frequency, PRF, and signal strength, the same jet may appear larger on TEE compared to transthoracic images. Quantitative pulsed Doppler by TEE works well provided that a deep transgastric view is obtained to properly align the PW Doppler beam to the LV outflow tract. The latter, however, is more difficult than with the transthoracic approach. Interrogation of all pulmonary veins is generally feasible with TEE.
Integrative Approach to Assessment of Mitral Regurgitation Severity
The approach to the evaluation of MR severity ideally integrates multiple parameters rather than depending on a single measurement. This helps minimize the effects of technical or measurement errors that are inherent to each method previously discussed. It is also important to distinguish between the amount of MR and its hemodynamic consequences. For example, a modest regurgitant volume that develops acutely into a small, noncompliant LA may cause severe pulmonary congestion and systemic hypotension. Conversely, some patients with chronic severe MR remain asymptomatic due to compensatory mechanisms and a dilated, compliant LA.
Parameters that describe the amount of MR include vena contracta width, regurgitant volume and fraction, and EROA calculated either by PISA or quantitative pulsed Doppler. Because regurgitant flows may be holosystolic or brief, as in valve prolapse[12], color Doppler techniques should be adjusted for duration of MR: for example, a wide vena contracta occurring briefly conveys only mild MR. On the other hand, the hemodynamic consequences of MR are reflected in several parameters including LA and LV volumes, the contour of the CW Doppler profile, and pulmonary venous flow pattern. Advantages and limitations of the various echo/Doppler parameters used in assessing severity of MR are detailed in Table 2. An MR index has been devised that assigns different weights to six different indicators of MR[57], using a score of 0–3 for jet penetration into the LA, PISA radius, CW jet intensity, pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary venous flow pattern, and LA size. A score of 1.7 or less reliably separated mild MR from severe MR; a considerable overlap, however, was observed between moderate and severe MR. Although it may be impractical for routine clinical use, this scoring system emphasizes the need to evaluate multiple echocardiographic parameters.
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Based on data in the literature and a consensus of the committee members, the Task Force proposes a scheme of specific signs (
90% specificity), along with supportive signs and quantitative parameters to help grade the severity of MR (Table 3). In applying this scheme, the Task Force also wishes to recognize the following. The specific signs have inherently a high positive predictive value for the severity of regurgitation. On the other hand, the supportive signs or clues may be helpful in consolidating the impression of the degree of MR, although their predictive value is more modest, since they are influenced by several factors (Table 2). It is the consensus of the committee members that the process of grading MR should be comprehensive, using a combination of clues, signs and measurements obtained by Doppler echocardiography. If the MR is definitely determined as mild or less using these signs, no further measurement is required. If there are signs suggesting that the MR is more than mild and the quality of the data lends itself to quantitation, it is desirable for echocardiographers with experience in quantitative methods to determine quantitatively the degree of MR, including the regurgitant volume and fraction as descriptors of volume overload and the effective regurgitant orifice as a descriptor of the lesion severity. It is also the consensus of the Task Force that the wording chosen for expressing the degree of MR, which is a continuum best defined by quantitative measurements, can include qualifiers such as mild-to-moderate to describe the lowest end of the moderate range and moderate-to-severe to describe the upper end of the moderate range. Finally, it is important to stress that when the evidence from the different parameters is congruent, it is easy to grade MR severity with confidence. When different parameters are contradictory, one must look carefully for technical and physiologic reasons to explain any discrepancies and rely on the components that have the best inherent quality of the primary data and are the most accurate considering the underlying physiologic condition.
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Aortic regurgitation |
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TopNotesIntroductionTwo-dimensional and Doppler...Mitral regurgitationAortic regurgitationTricuspid regurgitationPulmonary regurgitationConclusionsReferences |
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The assessment of aortic regurgitation (AR) is based on a comprehensive utilization of 2D echocardiography, color-flow imaging, pulsed and CW Doppler techniques and is essential in the clinical evaluation of aortic valvular disease[1]. The echocardiographic and Doppler evaluation of AR uses qualitative and quantitative measures that can be derived in a single examination. While qualitative or semi-quantitative measures are used uniformly, quantitative measures are often more time consuming and are used more selectively.
Role of Two-Dimensional Echocardiography
2D echocardiography provides important information regarding valve anatomy and structural deformities, presence and severity of aortic root dilatation and adaptation of the LV to the volume overload state. While mild degrees of AR are associated in general with mild pathology of the valve and aortic root and do not result in LV remodeling, severe chronic AR is usually observed in the setting of significant structural abnormalities of the valve or aortic root, and results in LV enlargement in the chronic state. Importantly, evaluation of LV size and function in significant AR provides clues as to the acuteness or chronicity of the regurgitation and helps determine management strategies and timing of surgical intervention.
Doppler Methods
Color Flow Doppler
Color-flow imaging directly shows the regurgitant flow through the aortic valve during diastole. The regurgitant flow has three components that can be visualized: the flow convergence region in the aorta, the vena contracta through the regurgitant orifice, and the jet direction and size in the left ventricle (Fig. 5).
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Regurgitant jet size
Imaging of the regurgitant jet is used in all patients with AR because of its simplicity and real-time availability[58]. The length of jet penetration into the left ventricle is an unsatisfactory indicator of AR severity[59]. The preferred assessment is based on the proximal jet width or cross-sectional area immediately below the aortic valve, within 1 cm of the valve[59,60]. The parasternal views are preferred to apical views because of better axial resolution. The recommended measurements are those of maximal proximal jet width obtained from the long-axis views and its ratio to the LV outflow tract diameter[59]. Similarly, the cross-sectional area of the jet from the parasternal short-axis view and its ratio to the LV outflow tract area can also be used[59]. The criteria to define severe AR are ratios of
65% for jet width and 60% for jet area (Table 4) (Fig. 6). Although small jets reliably reflect small degrees of AR, there are important limitations to color-flow imaging of regurgitant jet, similar to mitral regurgitation[38,40]. Jet shape may affect the measurements. If the proximal jet does not have a shape with parallel borders in the LV outflow, it is difficult to know where to measure it. Jet direction is also a confounding variable. Eccentric jets that are directed predominantly to the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve (Fig. 5) or the septum tend to occupy a small portion of the proximal outflow tract and may thus appear narrow and underestimate the severity of regurgitation[38]. Conversely, central jets tend to expand fully in the outflow tract and may be overestimated. Furthermore, the severity of AR in diffuse jets arising from the entire coaptation line is also poorly evaluated by color-flow imaging. This can be suspected from short axis imaging at the aortic valve. In practice, the assessment of AR based on jet size in the LV outflow is most often based on visual estimation rather than direct quantitative measurement and is used as a gross indicator of the degree of AR.
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Vena contracta
The vena contracta is defined as the smallest neck of the flow region at the level of the aortic valve, immediately below the flow convergence region. It is different from the jet width discussed above, which is measured in the LVOT, below the aortic valve (Fig. 5). The measurement of vena contracta width is significantly smaller than that of jet width in the LVOT because the jet expands immediately after the vena contracta. Imaging of the vena contracta is obtained similarly from parasternal long-axis views[61]. The vena contracta provides an estimate of the size of the EROA. To appropriately visualize the vena contracta, it is essential to see all three components of the regurgitant flow, i.e. the flow convergence, the vena contracta and the jet[61]. Measurement of vena contracta is simple and has a high feasibility both by transthoracic echocardiography and TEE. Furthermore, it appears to be more robust than jet width and area in the LVOT for the assessment of AR severity[61]. Limitations of this parameter occur in the presence of multiple jets or jets with irregular shapes, where one diameter may not be reflective of the severity of the AR; a short-axis view, however, will provide a better appreciation of the regurgitation[62]. The thresholds of vena contracta width associated with severe AR are 0.5 cm as a highly sensitive threshold, 0.7 cm as a highly specific threshold and 0.6 cm as the threshold with the best combination of specificity and sensitivity[61].
Flow convergence or PISA
Considerably less experience exists with PISA for the assessment of AR compared to MR. Imaging of the proximal flow convergence region by transthoracic echocardiography is performed from the apical, para-apical views, or the upper right-sternal border, with images zoomed on the valvular and supra-valvular region. The Nyquist limit is adjusted to obtain a rounded and measurable flow convergence zone and the aliasing radius is measured from the stop frame with the largest observable PISA. CW Doppler recording of the regurgitant peak velocity and velocity time integral allows calculation of the EROA and regurgitant volume. This method has been shown to provide accurate quantitation of AR[63]. However, it is feasible in a lower percentage of patients compared to MR due to interposition of valve tissue (apical views) and difficulty in obtaining high quality images of the flow convergence region. Another pitfall is related to the timing of measurement of the flow convergence radius, which should be in early diastole, closest to the peak regurgitant velocity. Furthermore, ascending aortic aneurysms, which deform the valvular plane, may lead to underestimation of AR by this method[63]. The thresholds for severe AR are an EROA 0.30 cm2 and a regurgitant volume 60 ml.
Pulsed Wave Doppler
Aortic diastolic flow reversal
It is normal to observe a brief diastolic flow reversal in the aorta. The flow reversal is best recorded in the upper descending aorta at the aortic isthmus level using a suprasternal view, or in the lower descending aorta using a longitudinal subcostal view. With increasing aortic regurgitation both the duration and the velocity of the reversal increase[64]. Therefore, a holodiastolic reversal is usually a sign of at least moderate aortic regurgitation (Fig. 6) and appears to be more specific if recorded from the thoraco-abdominal aorta. The velocity of flow reversal at end-diastole, the velocity time integral of the reversal, and the ratio of reversal to forward velocity time integrals in the descending aorta have all been proposed as semi-quantitative indices of AR severity[64,65]. A prominent holodiastolic reversal with a diastolic time integral similar to the systolic time integral is a reliable qualitative sign of severe AR. However, reduced compliance of the aorta seen with advancing age may also prolong the normal diastolic reversal in the absence of significant AR.
Flow calculations
Quantitation of flow with pulsed Doppler for the assessment of AR is based on comparison of measurement of aortic stroke volume at the LVOT with mitral or pulmonic stroke volume[14,15]. Total stroke volume (aortic stroke volume) can also be derived from quantitative 2D measurements of LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes. EROA can be calculated from the regurgitant stroke volume and the regurgitant jet velocity time integral by CW Doppler[15,53]. As with the PISA method, a regurgitant volume 60 ml and EROA 0.30 cm2 are consistent with severe AR. The quantitative Doppler method cannot be used if there is more than mild mitral regurgitation, unless the pulmonic site is used for systemic flow calculation.
Continuous Wave Doppler
Signal density
The density of the CW Doppler spectral display of the AR jet reflects the volume of regurgitation, especially in comparison to the antegrade spectral density. However, the AR jet density is also determined by the respective directions of initial and distal jet within the beam of ultrasound and also possibly by the ability of the jet to expand and mobilize adjoining red blood cells. While a faint spectral display is compatible with trace or mild AR, significant overlap between moderate and severe regurgitation exists in more dense jet recordings. Therefore, CW Doppler jet density is an imperfect indicator of severity of AR.
Diastolic jet deceleration
The rate of deceleration of the diastolic regurgitant jet and the derived pressure half-time reflect the rate of equalization of aortic and LV diastolic pressures. With increasing severity of AR, aortic diastolic pressure decreases more rapidly. The late diastolic jet velocity is lower and hence pressure half-time is shorter[66]. Pressure half-time is easily measured if the peak diastolic velocity is appropriately recorded. A pressure half-time <500 ms is usually compatible with mild AR whereas a value <200 ms is considered consistent with severe AR (Fig. 6). However, the diastolic AR velocity is also determined by LV diastolic compliance and pressure. For a given severity of AR, pressure half-time can be further shortened by an elevated LV diastolic pressure or by vasodilator therapy that reduces AR[66,67]. On the other hand, pressure half-time can be lengthened or normalized with chronic LV adaptation to severe AR[68].
Role of TEE
TEE is seldom needed to evaluate severity of AR due to the proximity of the aortic valve to the chest from the parasternal window. However, TEE may be needed in patients with poor acoustic windows, in whom transthoracic echocardiography cannot provide adequate delineation of anatomy or accurate Doppler recordings. Color Doppler criteria on jet width and the size of the vena contracta apply equally to TEE and may show improved image quality in some patients. However, due to more difficulty with TEE in obtaining views where the jet direction is parallel to the ultrasound beam, measurements of regurgitant fraction by PW Doppler and recording of the AR velocity with CW Doppler are more difficult to obtain reliably. With proper angulation, the magnitude of the proximal flow convergence can be measured. In addition, one can record the diastolic flow reversal in the ascending aorta with PW Doppler from the upper esophageal views, which also show the aortic arch.
Integrative Approach to Assessment of AR
The assessment of AR by Doppler echocardiography is an integrative and comprehensive process based on all information collected during the examination. The advantages and limitations of the 2D and Doppler parameters in evaluating AR severity are shown in Table 5. In all cases one should routinely perform an evaluation of the aortic valve, LV size and function, an assessment by color-flow imaging of the proximal jet width and, if possible, the vena contracta. The LV outflow velocity and the velocity in the proximal descending aorta and/or abdominal aorta should be recorded by pulsed Doppler. CW Doppler of the AR jet should also be routinely recorded but only utilized if a complete signal is obtained.
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Based on data in the literature and a consensus of the committee members, the Task Force proposes a scheme of specific signs (
90% specificity), along with supportive signs in which predictive accuracy is more modest, and quantitative parameters for AR severity (Table 6). In applying this scheme, it is the consensus of the committee members that the process of grading AR should be comprehensive using a combination of these signs, clues and measurements obtained by Doppler echocardiography. If the AR is definitely determined as mild or less using these signs, no further measurement is required. If there are parameters suggestive of more than mild AR and the quality of the primary data lends itself to quantitation, it is desirable for echocardiographers with experience in quantitative methods to measure quantitatively the degree of AR, including the regurgitant volume and fraction as descriptors of volume overload and the effective regurgitant orifice as a descriptor of the lesion severity. The wording chosen for expressing the degree of AR, which is a continuum best defined by quantitative measurements, can include qualifiers such as mild-to-moderate to describe the lowest end of the moderate range and moderate-to-severe to describe the upper end of the moderate range. Similar to MR, when the evidence from the different parameters is congruent, it is easy to grade AR severity. When different parameters are contradictory, one must look carefully for technical and physiologic reasons to explain these discrepancies and rely on the components that have the best quality of the primary data and that are the most accurate considering the underlying clinical condition.
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Tricuspid regurgitation |
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TopNotesIntroductionTwo-dimensional and Doppler...Mitral regurgitationAortic regurgitationTricuspid regurgitationPulmonary regurgitationConclusionsReferences |
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A small degree of tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is present in about 70% of normal individuals[69–71]. Pathologic regurgitation is often due to right ventricular (RV) and tricuspid annular dilation secondary to pulmonary hypertension or RV dysfunction. Primary causes of TR include endocarditis, carcinoid heart disease, Ebstein's anomaly, and rheumatic disease[72–74].
Evaluation of TR severity has been hampered by the lack of a quantitative standard for severity. Furthermore, in contrast to left sided lesions, surgical intervention for severe TR alone is uncommon. More often, tricuspid annuloplasty is performed as an adjunct to other cardiac surgery when TR is significant. The echocardiographic examination therefore seeks to determine the etiology of regurgitation and provides a semi-quantitative estimate of severity. The various parameters used in this evaluation are detailed in Table 7. More quantitative measures of TR severity are rarely needed. During the examination, it is important to measure the TR velocity with CW Doppler, which provides an estimation of RV systolic pressure.
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Role of Two-Dimensional Echocardiography
Evaluation of the tricuspid valve apparatus with 2D echocardiography is important in determining the etiology of TR. Secondary findings like right atrial and RV enlargement often accompany significant chronic TR. Such an evaluation is usually qualitative. Although enlargement of right-sided chambers is not specific for significant regurgitation, its absence suggests milder degree of TR. Paradoxical ventricular septal motion may occur with the RV volume overload due to severe TR. However, this sign is not specific for TR, as it is affected by many factors[75–77]. Lastly, imaging of the inferior vena cava in the subcostal view for size and respiratory variation provides an evaluation of right atrial pressure[78–80].
Doppler Methods
Color Flow Doppler
The simplest approach to evaluate TR severity is color-flow imaging in several views to establish the characteristics, direction and the size of the regurgitant jet. Since the RV is situated in the anterior chest, transthoracic images usually are adequate and should include the parasternal RV inflow view, the parasternal short-axis view, the apical four-chamber view and the subcostal four-chamber view. As a general rule, jets that extend deep into the right atrium represent more TR than small central jets that appear just superior to the tricuspid leaflets (Fig. 7). Overall, color Doppler flow mapping of TR severity using jet area correlates well with angiographic evaluation[81] and clinical measures of regurgitant severity[82,83]. However, there can be considerable overlap of jet areas in patients with mild vs moderate TR[83]. Furthermore, and similar to MR, flow jets that are directed centrally into the right atrium generally appear larger by color Doppler than eccentric, wall-impinging jets with similar or worse severity.
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Color-flow imaging also may be used to determine TR severity by the PISA method. Visualization of a measurable contour of the flow convergence zone is more challenging than with MR. Quantitation of TR using the PISA method has been validated in small studies but is rarely needed clinically[81,84]. On the other hand, visualization of the vena contracta width is technically less demanding and can be utilized either quantitatively or qualitatively[82,85,86]. A jet width <0.7 cm identifies severe TR with a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 93% and correlates well with EROA[85,86]. Both the PISA and vena contracta methods are more accurate for determining TR severity in central jets compared to eccentric jets, and appear to be more accurate than jet area. However, there can be overlap in values of jet width between mild and moderate TR. Underestimation of severe TR can also occur in 20–30% of patients using jet area or PISA[81].
Continuous Wave Doppler
Recording of TR jet velocity provides a useful method for noninvasive measurement of RV or pulmonary artery systolic pressure. It is important to note that TR jet velocity, similar to velocity of other regurgitant lesions, is not related to the volume of regurgitant flow. In fact, massive TR is often associated with a low jet velocity (<2 m/s), as there is near equalization of RV and right atrial pressures (Fig. 7). Conversely, mild regurgitation may have a very high jet velocity when pulmonary hypertension is present.
Similar to MR, the features of the TR jet by CW Doppler that help in evaluating severity of regurgitation, are the signal intensity and the contour of the velocity curve (Fig. 7). With severe TR, a dense spectral recording is seen along with a triangular, early peaking of the velocity because of a prominent regurgitant pressure wave. With severe tricuspid regurgitation and normal RV pressures, the antegrade and retrograde CW flow signals across the valve are almost mirror images of each other, corresponding to the ‘to-and-fro’ flow across the severely incompetence valve orifice[87].
Pulsed Doppler
The severity of TR will affect the early diastolic tricuspid E velocity, similar to MR. Values above 1.0 m/s are often recorded in pati